Encounters with Western

The Papal Bull of 1493 issued by Pope Alexander VI was a document that authorized the Spanish government to colonize, enslave and spread Catholicism using force if necessary. It was here when the Philippines was subjugated and brought under Spanish Crown, while the Muslims in the south fought to remain free.  Excerpt from the English Translation of the 1493 Papal Bull

Wherefore, as becomes Catholic kings and princes, after earnest consideration of all matters, especially of the rise and spread of the Catholic faith, as was the fashion of your ancestors, kings of renowned memory, you have purposed with the favor of divine clemency to bring under your sway the said mainlands and islands with their residents and inhabitants and to bring them to the Catholic faith. Hence, heartily commending in the Lord this your holy and praiseworthy purpose, and desirous that it be duly accomplished, and that the name of our Savior be carried into those regions, we exhort you very earnestly in the Lord and by your reception of holy baptism, whereby you are bound to our apostolic commands, and by the bowels of the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, enjoy strictly, that inasmuch as with eager zeal for the true faith you design to equip and despatch this expedition, you purpose also, as is your duty, to lead the peoples dwelling in those islands and countries to embrace the Christian religion; nor at any time let dangers or hardships deter you therefrom, with the stout hope and trust in your hearts that Almighty God will further your undertakings. And, in order that you may enter upon so great an undertaking with greater readiness and heartiness endowed with benefit of our apostolic favor, we, of our own accord, not at your instance nor the request of anyone else in your regard, but out of our own sole largess and certain knowledge and out of the fullness of our apostolic power, by the authority of Almighty God conferred upon us in blessed Peter and of the vicarship of Jesus Christ, which we hold on earth, do by tenor of these presents, should any of said islands have been found by your envoys and captains, give, grant, and assign to you and your heirs and successors, kings of Castile and Leon, forever, together with all their dominions, cities, camps, places, and villages, and all rights, jurisdictions, and appurtenances, all islands and mainlands found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered towards the west and south, by drawing and establishing a line from the Arctic pole, namely the north, to the Antarctic pole, namely the south, no matter whether the said mainlands and islands are found and to be found in the direction of India or towards any other quarter, the said line to be distant one hundred leagues towards the west and south from any of the islands commonly known as the Azores and Cape Verde. With this proviso however that none of the islands and mainlands, found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered, beyond that said line towards the west and south, be in the actual possession of any Christian king or prince up to the birthday of our Lord Jesus Christ just past from which the present year one thousand four hundred ninety-three begins. And we make, appoint, and depute you and your said heirs and successors lords of them with full and free power, authority, and jurisdiction of every kind; with this proviso however, that by this our gift, grant, and assignment no right acquired by any Christian prince, who may be in actual possession of said islands and mainlands prior to the said birthday of our Lord Jesus Christ, is hereby to be understood to be withdrawn or taking away. Moreover we command you in virtue of holy obedience that, employing all due diligence in the premises, as you also promise—nor do we doubt your compliance therein in accordance with your loyalty and royal greatness of spirit—you should appoint to the aforesaid mainlands and islands worthy, God-fearing, learned, skilled, and experienced men, in order to instruct the aforesaid inhabitants and residents in the Catholic faith and train them in good morals. Furthermore, under penalty of excommunication “late sententie” to be incurred “ipso facto,” should anyone thus contravene, we strictly forbid all persons of whatsoever rank, even imperial and royal, or of whatsoever estate, degree, order, or condition, to dare without your special permit or that of your aforesaid heirs and successors, to go for the purpose of trade or any other reason to the islands or mainlands, found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered, towards the west and south, by drawing and establishing a line from the Arctic pole to the Antarctic pole, no matter whether the mainlands and islands, found and to be found, lie in the direction of India or toward any other quarter whatsoever, the said line to be distant one hundred leagues towards the west and south, as is aforesaid, from any of the islands commonly known as the Azores and Cape Verde; apostolic constitutions and ordinances and other decrees whatsoever to the contrary notwithstanding. We trust in Him from whom empires and governments and all good things proceed, that, should you, with the Lord’s guidance, pursue this holy and praiseworthy undertaking, in a short while your hardships and endeavors will attain the most felicitous result, to the happiness and glory of all Christendom.

Source: https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/doctrine-discovery-1493

Spanish’s attempt to colonize Manila was met with fierce resistance by Muslim leaders: Raja Sulayman in May 1570 and Tariq Sulayman from Pampanga in June 1571 whom the Spaniards called Moros. But with the help of Christianized natives from Visayas, both resistances fell, and Catholicism rapidly spread to almost entire Luzon and Visayas areas.

More Information: The first Spanish expedition sent to the Fareast was led by a Portuguese, Ferdinand Magellan who arrived Visayas area in 1521. Although he successfully converted the natives to Catholicism, he was killed in Mactan by Lapu Lapu’s men who were believed to be Muslims.

After Magellan, King Charles sent three more expeditions; in 1525, 1526 and 1527 but all ended in failure. Frustrated and bankrupt, he agreed to sign the Treaty of Zaragosa with Portugal in 1529 which defined the areas of influence of both countries in Asia. A demarcation line at 297.5 leagues east of the Moluccas was drawn. All lands west of the line including Moluccas and Philippines belonged to Portugal. To east were for Spain.

Despite of the treaty, in 1542, King Charles I sent an expedition headed by Lopez de Villalobos to establish a permanent settlement in the Philippines. After a year, the expedition arrived in the island of Sarangani, south of Mindanao. But hunger and stiff hostilities of the Moros forced Villalobos to abandon the expedition. On their way to Moluccas where they were imprisoned by the Portuguese, they passed by Samar-Leyte. Bernard de la Torre, one of the crews, named the island Las Islas Filipinas or the Philippine Islands in honor of the Spanish Crowned, Prince Philip II. The name was later applied to the entire archipelago and was anglicized by the Americans to its present name, Philippines (Jubair, 1999).

In 1556, Philip II ascended to the throne and made it an official policy to colonize the Philippines. On April 27, 1565, Spanish expedition under Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived in Panay. In five years, Legazpi have subjugated Panay and areas near Cebu, and destroyed Muslim fortified outpost in Mindoro. Bearing the hatred against their Muslim enemies in Spain and the same people who stood as the main obstacle to their economic ambition in the Philippines, King Phillip II affirmed this policy in his written instruction to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1566, which partly reads, “We give you permission to make such Moros slaves and to seize their property.” After acquiring the help of Visayan natives, Legazpi sent Martin de Goiti with 120 Spanish soldiers and hundreds of Visayan natives in early May of 1570 to deal with Raja Sulayman in Manila.

After the siege of Manila, Goiti returned to Panay with some booties. A year later, on May 03, 1571, Spaniards led by Legazpi himself, with 250 harquebusiers and 600 Visayan natives, returned to finally take Manila permanently for their economic ambition in the country. But another organized resistance was launched by a young Macabebe chief from Pampanga, Tariq Sulayman. His death however led to the defeat of his entire 2,000 warriors against 80 Spaniards and some 500 native Visayan allies.

With the defeat of Raja Sulayman and the young Macabebe chief, all resistance to Spanish rule in Luzon and Visayas including the aborted Magat Salamat Conspiracy in Tondo in 1578 were suppressed by the Spaniards. In a span of eleven years, almost the entire Luzon and Visayas were reduced into vassalage to Spanish crown and subjected to Spanish control. But the Moros in Sulu and Mindanao remain free, and the Spaniards will have yet to deal with them.

Sources:

Jubair, Salah. Bangsamoro: A Nation Under Endless Tyranny. Kuala Lumpur: IQ Marin, 1999.

Alfonso, Ian Christopher B. The Nameless Hero. Pampanga: Holy Angels University Press, 2016.

Majul, Cesar A. The Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999.

Wadi, Julkipli M. Rajah Sulayman, Spain and the transformation of the Islamic Manila. Quezon City: RAIS Publication, 2009.

After the fall of Manila and the establishment of a Spanish colony in Luzon, the Spanish conquistador Don Ésteban Rodriguez de Figueroa embarked on a campaign to conquer the Muslims of Sulu and Maguindanao from April 1-25, 1596. While he succeeded in extracting tribute from the Sulu sultan, he was killed in Maguindanao.

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Before conquering the Muslims in Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago, Spaniards first attacked Brunei thinking that defeating Brunei would weaken Sulu and Mindanao and eliminate their commercial rival in the Philippines. Brunei royalty was intimately connected to the Muslim rulers in Manila and Sulu and Bornean traders were business partners of the Muslims in the country. This motive was underscored in the letter sent by Spanish officials in Cebu to Spain, thus:

“We beseech his majesty, and your highness in his royal name, that, inasmuch as the said Moros and others take all the gold, pearls, jewels precious stones and other things of which we have no information-thus injuring the natives, both by giving us no opportunity to plant our holy faith among them, and by taking the said gold, they should, if they continue the said trade, lose their property and be made slaves, for they preach the doctrine of Mahomet.”

With the permission of the Spanish King, Spaniards attacked and defeated Brunei in 1578. Governor Francis de Sande then instructed Captain Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa to go to Sulu to demand tribute and proceed to Maguindanao to reduce their leaders into vassalage, stop admitting Muslim preachers and convert to Christianity. Captain Roriguez’s victory over Sulu raja in two minor engagements resulted in the payment of some amount by the Sulu sultan which was considered a tribute by the Spaniards. But the Spaniards were not lucky in Maguindanao.

In 1591, the Spanish authorities in Manila fomented a plan to colonize the rulers of Maguindanao. Governor-General Francisco de Sande entered into an agreement with Don Èsteban Rodriguez de Figueroa to launch an expedition in Mindanao and establish a colony at his own expense. In return, Figueroa was to be designated as governor of Mindanao for life and the position shall be inherited by his heirs.

On April 1, 1596, Figueroa was able to mobilize fifty vessels comprising of 214 Spaniards and 1,500 native allies. After travelling for about three weeks, the expeditionary forces arrived in the mouth of Pulangi and the Maguindanaon rulers withdrew to the interior avoiding a direct confrontation. Upon their arrival, the Spaniards established a fort in Tampakan in between Maguindanao and Buayan.

On April 25, five days after his arrival, while on his way to Buayan to conquerRajah Silongan, he was ambushed by Datu Ubal, a relative of Silongan. Datu Ubal landed a decisive blow against him on the head and as a result, he died a few hours later.

With the death of Figueroa, Juan de Xara took over the fort and its operations. The following year, Juan Ronquillo would be sent to Mindanao to manage the affairs of the camp and direct the operations under the auspices of the Spanish authorities in Manila. While Ronquillo was able to defend the camp after a series of skirmishes between the Spaniards and the Moros, he would be forced to abandon the fort on account of difficulties in communications, inadequate supplies, and losses in terms of manpower. The Spaniards would later on decide to establish another fort in La Caldera, a few miles from Zamboanga.

Sources:

Majul, Cesar Adib. 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press.

Mastura, Datu Michael O. 2022. Rulers of Magindanao in Modern History, 1515-1903: Continuity and Change in a Traditional Realm in the Southern Philippines. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

de Morga, Antonio. 1890. Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, annotated by Jose Rizal. Paris: Libreria de Garnier Hermanos.

“In the fullness of its glory, the sultan of Maguindanao ruled over the whole southern coast of Mindanao from Point Tugubum (Tagum?), east of Mati, to Zamboanga, and beyond this latter point to the outskirts of Dapitan. All the pagan tribes living around the Gulf of Davao and in the Sarangani country, and  all the Subanos west of Tukuran and Dapitan submitted to his power and paid him tribute. In the Upper Rio Grande Valley the power of the rajas of Bwayan was felt and respected as far as the watershed of the Cagayan Valley on the north and the inaccessible slopes of Mount Apo on the east. The Ranao Moros control the whole country and the seacoast west of Cagayan de Misamis and north of the Illana Bay.”

“The large majority of the Moro sultanates are, however, small, and have never been fully numbered or described. They generally represent small divisions of territory and subdivisions of tribes, each under one chief who calls himself sultan or datu. Nevertheless, tribal relations and language group (categorize) these petty divisions into two large distinct groups, the Magindanao and the Iranun. The Magindanao group includes the majority of the tribes. The Iranun group is restricted to the tribes living along the eastern coast of the Bay Illana from the point of Polloc to the neighborhood of Tukuran, and the whole Ranao region lying between the line and the Bay of Iligan.“

Saleeby, Najeeb M. 1975. “Studies in Moro History, Law, and Religion” in The Notre Dame Journal, Volume 6, No. 1 April. P. 32.

On October 29, 1603, Raja Buisan of Maguindanao forged alliance with leaders of Dulag, Leyte, to throw off the Spaniards in the country. However, the alliance did not last when the Spaniards defeated the Ternate, Maguindanao’s strong ally.

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With the support from Sangil and Ternate, Raja Buisan of Maguindanao, attacked the town of Dulag in Leyte on October 29, 1603. With him were more than fifty war vessels and about a thousand men. He burned the church and the town, took a few hundred captives, and amassed a large booty. After leaving word that he wanted to talk with the datus of Leyte upon his return to Dulag in a a span of one week, he sailed away to destroy other nearby ports and put their churches to the torch. His attack was devastating that it made difficult for the Spanish garrison in the Visayas and Calamianes to cope with the situation. Even non-Muslims in Mindanao took advantage of the situation by raiding islands in eastern Visayas.

When he returned to Dulag, the Leyte datus were waiting for him. He gave back what he took from them and convinced them to make an alliance against the Spaniards. “The Spaniards,” he said, “were only a handful, nor were they as invincible as they made themselves out to be. Let the people of Leyte be resolute; let them prepare to rise as one man.” The meeting ended with a blood compact to formalize their alliance.

Spain’s response was to create dissensions by concluding an agreement with his rival Raja Sirungan of Buayan on September 06, 1605, recognizing him as the paramount chief of Maguindanao in return for his allegiance to Spain. Raja Sirungan also had to stop all incursions into Spanish territories. This agreement was also to prevent possible attacks of the Muslims on Christian settlements as Spanish governor Pedro Bravo de Acuña was granted permission to fight the Dutch and conquer Moluccas in 1604.

Spanish Victory in Moluccas and Ternate compelled both Raja Buisan and Raja Sirungan to write the Spanish governor on July 22, 1604, to ask forgiveness for their previous alliance with Ternate and appealed to Spain not to retaliate.

Source: Majul, Cesar A. 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Photo source: 2030 Youth Force in the Philippines Facebook Page

https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=2433473653421589&id=804364539665850&set=a.804853572950280&locale=bg_BG

Datu Ache was a mentor of Sulu’s Sultan Raja Bongsu and the defender of Sulu. His bravery compelled the Spanish government to bring upon its wrath to destroy Sulu.

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Datu Aceh was an experienced fighter in Brunei when he was assigned as a mentor and guide by the Brunei Sultan to the young ruler of Sulu, Raja Bongsu. His political career began when he attacked Camarines.

In 1614, Datu Aceh and Raja Bongsu met with Dutch Admiral Laurens Reael to make a pact against the Spaniards. The Dutch Admiral viewed this as a peculiar negotiation from the young “King of Sulu” since it did not agree with the Twelve-Year Truce. At first, this negotiation did not materialize until 1616.

On the 1^st of November 1616, a fleet of 10 Dutch galleons sailed to Manila Bay and remained in the region until it was defeated and destroyed by the Spanish fleet in April 1617. While the Spaniards were preoccupied with the attacks of the Dutch, Datu Aceh took this opportunity to raid the Pantao shipyard in Camarines where several large vessels were being built resulting in thirty Spaniards being killed and others captured as slaves.

After destroying the ships and stripping the vessel’s weapons, they over-ran several of the Visayan islands on their way home. In Leyte, he captured the widely known holy man, Fr. Juan Domingo Vilancia S.J.. He brought Fr. Juan to Jolo and treated him well. The Jesuits tried to ransom their kin, but he died and was buried in Jolo as he was already old and frail. After this, the Spaniards regarded the Tausugs as the “most dangerous of enemies.”

In 1624, Raja Bongsu sent Datu Aceh to Manila to negotiate a truce with the Spaniards to protect the wealthy trade in Sulu. However, on his return journey to Sulu the following year, a Spanish patrol seized Datu Aceh’s ship, imprisoned him in Manila, and confiscated his goods. When the news reached the authorities, they immediately released Datu Aceh with profuse apologies and his goods restored. The Datu claimed that three large pearls of great value were not returned to him, thus, he left resentfully. He even returned to Manila to secure his pearls but was unsuccessful.

There were other Tausug traders who robbed a Spanish patrol. Fray Medina even concluded the incident as injustice committed by the Tausug. Raja Bongsu did not like what happened and plotted a revenge attack on the Spaniards.

Sources:

Majul, Cesar A. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999.

Nicholl, Robert. Raja Bongsu of Sulu – A Brunei Hero in His Times. Council of the Malaysian Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, 1991.

The height of Maguindanao Sultanate’s power was achieved during the reign of Sultan Kudarat (1619-1671) who ruled over the entire southern cost of Mindanao and the Gulf of Davao.

To answer the Spaniards’ maltreatment and robbery of Datu Ache, Raja Bongsu in 1627 destroyed the Spanish shipyard in Camarines and took away slaves including the Governor’s daughter. in 1627 as retribution for the maltreatment and robbery of the Spaniards to Datu Aceh in 1624. The following years, the Spaniards responded by attacking Jolo and desecrated the tomb of Sultan Sharif Ali. The long and epic battle between the Tausugs led by Raja Bongsu and the Spaniards had been ignited.

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In 1627, Raja Bongsu assembled 2,000 men and more than 30 caracoas to attack the new shipyard in Camarines. They attacked just before dawn which took the Spaniards by surprise. There were only fourteen Spanish guards, two were killed immediately, and the remaining twelve fortified themselves in a store located at the riverbank. They held out until midday together with the women, children, and the wounded.  While the Tausug were busy loading an enormous amount of booty, the Spaniards escaped through a large boat at the back of the store.

Before leaving, Raja Bonsu left a letter for the Governor, stating that his attack was just a retribution for the treatment experienced by his ambassador and emissary, Datu Aceh. They left with 300 people captured as slaves and among them was a Spanish lady named Doña Lucia who happened to be the daughter of the Governor. Doña Lucia became the private secretary of Raja Bongsu later. On their way home, they took more captives from the island of Bantayan and some three hundred more from Ormoc, Leyte. When the news reached Manila, the Spanish government organized an expedition composed of 200 Spaniards and 1,500 native allies led by Don Cristobal de Lugo.

Don Cristobal attacked Jolo on the afternoon of the 22^nd of April, 1628. The Tausug were surprised and unprepared since they were busy harvesting. Raja Bongsu and some followers succeeded in reaching the hill front. The town fell to the Spaniards with little resistance. The Spaniards have taken the most luxurious booty that they never had before. Everything of value that could be carried away was taken, and the rest, including the town itself, was burned. Great quantities of food and warlike stores were destroyed. Most of all, the entire Tausug fleet was set on fire.

The devastation of Jolo did not stop there for Governor Don Nino de Tabora gave a mission to Don Cristobal to burn the tomb of Sultan Sharif Ali. Muslims from the whole region embark on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Sultan Sharif Ali, one of the early Muslim missionaries who came to Sulu. Don Cristobal found the tomb without difficulty and burned it to the foundations. The troops also gained a booty worth 30,000 pesos without having suffered a single fatality. They offered the Sultan 600 pesos ransom for Doña Lucia which the Sultan refused. He instead demanded the return of some captured artillery.

The following year in 1629, Datu Aceh attacked Leyte. The Spaniards again responded by attacking Jolo in 1630. The expedition however failed as the Tausug were well-prepared. The following year, the Tausug attacked Leyte again and took many captives for the slave market in Makassar.

Raja Bongsu’s daughter from his wife in Basilan was married to Sultan Kudarat of Maguindanao. In 1634, the combined forces of Maguindanao and Sulu attacked Dapitan, Bohol, and Leyte.

Sources:

Majul, Cesar A. 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Nicholl, Robert. 1991. Raja Bongsu of Sulu – A Brunei Hero in His Times. Council of the Malaysian Branch of Royal Asiatic Society.

In an attempt to establish a solid foothold in Mindanao, Governor-General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera launched a military campaign against Sultan Kudarat in Ramitan from March 13-24, 1637.

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Prompted by the presence of the Dutch in Southeast Asia and the seasonal raids conducted by the Maguindanaons in the Visayas, King Philip IV of Spain decreed the pacification of Mindanao on February 17, 1636.

While in he was in Zamboanga, Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera identified the target for his attack as Ramitan, the site of the new capital of Sultan Kudarat near the Iranun coastal town of Baras, in an attempt subjugate the sultan’s bastion of resistance against Spanish colonization.

On March 13, 1637, Corcuera arrived with an 800-strong advance force from Zamboanga on the coast of Ramitan, wreaking havoc along the way and destroying several Iranun settlements and minor kotas. The Spaniards also captured several Javanese vessels filled with merchandise and captives.

Three days later, Spanish reinforcements from Zamboanga arrived. This allowed Corcuera to storm the fortification complex of Sultan Kudarat in the interior of Ramitan, otherwise known as the Ilihan Heights. During this battle, the wife of Sultan Kudarat, together with her infant child, allegedly threw herself over a cliff to avoid capture. As explained by Mamitua Saber (1979), writers who had read of this incident interpreted that the Muslim sultan’s wife had preferred death for herself and her child, rather than a life of captivity in the hands of a foreign and atrocious enemy. Meanwhile, Sultan Kudarat suffered serious injuries during the battle, forcing him to retreat to the interior of Ranaw and recuperate for a few years.

After the battle, Corcuera razed Ramitan to the ground. Furthermore, to instill fear in the brave Moros, he ordered the decapitation of seventy-two Muslims, with their heads propped on spikes. He then sent a clear message of his victory to Datu Maputi of Rajah Buayan, promising to recognize him as the lord of Pulangi if he agreed to the Spaniards’ terms. Corcuera also issued instructions to pacify all Iranun and Sama coastal settlements under Spanish rule.

On March 24, Corcuera returned to Manila triumphantly receiving a hero’s welcome from the Spanish colony. On the same year, he wrote his report to the Spanish monarch boasting of his achievements and plans to conquer the Moros the succeeding year.

Sources:

Majul, Cesar Adib. 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.            

Montero, Jose V. 1888. Historia de la Piratería Malayo-Mahometana en Mindanao Joló y Borneo. Madrid: Imprenta y Fundación de Manuel Tello. 

Saber, Mamitua. 1979. “Maranao Resistance to Foreign Invasions.” Philippine Sociological Review 27(4). Retrieved from https://pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Sociological%20Review/1979/Num%204/08_Maranao%20Resistance%20to%20Foreign%20Invasions.pdf.

Photo Source: A diorama installed at the Ayala Museum depicting the Battle of Ramitan, photographed by Mr. Ruhollah Alonto in 2023.

Description: After defeating Sultan Qudarat of Maguindanao in 1637, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corquera pursued his plan to bring down Jolo and defeat Raja Bongsu and Datu Aceh. An epic battle that lasted four months with numerous attacks and negotiations. The outbreak of an epidemic contributed to the success of the Spaniards.

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After the defeat of Sultan Qudarat, Raja Bongsu and Datu Aceh knew that Don Sebastian Corcuera would attack them next. They started preparing for their defense. They sold in Macassar the gold and silver looted from the mission churches over the last 10 years to buy arms and munitions, and hire mercenaries. Apart from the four great guns captured from the Camarines shipyard, the Tausug also acquired seven large and 10 smaller bronze cannons, 7 cast irons, 21 spare breech chambers, and uncountable arquebuses. Aside from the steep slope that adds to their advantage, Datu Aceh also installed torches of tow around the defensive which could be lit and would last several months. He also excavated underground chambers where the women and children could take shelter during the bombardments. It was the most formidable cotta ever built against the Spaniards. The Yakans, Makassars, and Malay warriors.

On January 4, 1638, Don Sebastian Corcuera finally commenced his mission and landed in Jolo with 600 Spaniards, 1,000 Filipinos, and a large supply of stores and munitions in 80 vessels. Their initial attempts to infiltrate were unsuccessful. They could not cover their assault with artillery because none of their guns had the high elevation to reach the fort. Don Sebastian Corcuera decided to mine the hillside and blow it to compromise the fortification above. While the mining was ongoing, Don Sebastian Corcuera also surrounded the fort with a ring fence 6 miles long, with a trench set with sharp spikes, and watch towers at frequent intervals. There were also six barracks containing troops reserved for any attempt to break out in force.

On March 24, Don Sebastian Corcuera exploded the mines which caused part of the defenses to collapse. The Tausug were taken completely by surprise  but the Spaniards had withdrawn back to avoid the blast and falling debris which allowed the Tausug to thrust back. 50 Tausug had been instantly killed and Datu Aceh had been blown up and buried in debris. Fortunately, he managed to thrust out a hand, and his men recognized him and immediately dug him out. Although he was seriously injured, he is very much alive.

On March 28, Don Sebastian Corcuera detonated another mine. When they reached the breach, the Tausug were waiting for them. This disappointment was compensated when Don Pedro Almonte succeeded in gun emplacement on higher ground, allowing him to play upon the fort. Don Pedro’s one gun could fire balls weighing 80 lbs. (36.8 kilos) and four would fire balls weighing 45 lbs. (20.3 kilos). During his bombardment, he fired into the fort 80 of the first sort and 200 of the second. Women and children swarmed into the Datu’s underground shelters.

On April 5, two Yakans appeared under a flag of truce, and requested permission to surrender their arms and return home. The reason behind this is the dysentery and smallpox raging within the confined space making the Datu’s underground a death trap. The following day. Tuambaloka sent a letter to Jesuit Fr. Pedro Guttierez and asked for an interview with Don Sebastian Corcuera. However, he responded that he would only negotiate with Raja Bongsu and there are three conditions before any negotiations could commence:

• The four great guns captured at the Camarines shipyard in 1627 must be returned;
• All Christian slaves held within the fort must be released;
• Church ornaments and plates, which had been looted in recent years must be returned.

For the next few days, Raja Bongsu and Datu Aceh were in dispute. With the rampant death within the fort caused by dysentery and smallpox, Raja Bongsu and Tuambaloka are inclined to surrender to the Spaniards for the sake of their people. However, Datu Aceh was adamant with the idea of not surrendering to the Spaniards. In the end, Raja’s decision prevailed.

On April 10, Raja surrendered the guns, released all his Christian slaves, and tried to persuade the other Datus to do the same. The following day, he met with Don Sebastian Corcuera. In this meeting, Don Sebastian demanded that the Tausug must descend and the fort to be surrendered to his soldiers. The Raja agreed but requested for a delay since he still needed to convince the other Datus first.

On April 13, around 90 Yakans descended while the remaining 50 to 60 did not come down because they were sick. This was followed by the Macassarese who descended with a written passport from Don Sebastian Corcuera. In the fort, the Datus were still deeply divided on surrendering, making Don Sebastian impatient and threatening them to renew the bombardment.  Tuambaloka met again with Don Sebastian and sought to give them three more days, and together with the young Sultan Bongsu, their people would descend to which Don Sebastian agreed.

On the morning of April 17, Raja Bongsu and Tuambaloka proceeded to lead the descent through the west gate of the fort while Don Pedro and his men entered the east gate. As the Tausug descended, the Spaniards saw only 400 fighting men, while the other 1,500 were composed of old men, women, children, and sick.

Once they reached outside the Spanish camp, Don Pedro de Francia commanded them to surrender their arms, but the Raja stated that they would submit their arms to none other than Don Sebastián. While waiting for Don Sebastian, a blinding and steamy rainstorm poured drenching everything. As the Spaniards ran for cover, the Tausug dropped all and disappeared into the outpour. Thus, those who had come down from the fort escaped into the countryside and safety. Raja Bongsu and Tuambaloka remained in hiding with the Tausug, while Datu Aceh slipped away and made his way to Tawi-Tawi.

On the evening of the surrender, Tuambaloka sent a letter to Don Sebastian through her nephew, Tankun. She expressed her regret stating that neither she nor her husband could avail themselves of his hospitality for the present, as they must stay with their people. She hoped, however, in due course to accept his invitation. As she had left her prized possessions at his quarters, the Don felt sure that she would.

When the Spaniards had occupied the hill fort, they discovered enormous treasure, which the Tausug had buried within its walls. They also found a great accumulation of documents written in Arabic scripts which they all burned. There may have been two copies of the Holy Qur’an in the collection, but the others would have been commercial or administrative documents.

The Spanish triumph over Jolo was due to the intervention of unforeseen factors, the impact of smallpox and dysentery in the garrison. However, later writers tended to understate the epidemic, or even omit it altogether, attributing the victory wholly to the bravery of the Spanish arms.

But while Jolo was defeated, Tausug in the hinterlands remained to oppose the Spaniards. In July 1639, Governor Don Luis de Guzman led a formidable force against them. The fierce battle wounded him where he eventually died.

Several attempts by Raja Bongsu to regain Jolo failed. His impairing health during his twelve months as a fugitive compelled him to negotiate peace. On April 14, 1646, a treaty was signed. Representative of Sultan Quradan, his son-in-law was present during the signing. Datu Aceh who never accepted peace with the Spaniards returned to Brunei.

Sources:

Nicholl, Robert. Raja Bongsu of Sulu – A Brunei Hero in His Times. Council of the Malaysian Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, 1991.

Sulu Sultan ‘Azim ud-Udin was a learned Sultan in Islam but converted to Catholicism in Manila after being deposed by his younger brother. His conversion was however questionable as he reverted back to Islam when the British brought him home to Sulu and restored Sultan by his people.

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Sultan Azim ud-Din became Sultan of Sulu in 1735, succeeding his father, Badar ud-Din, who spent his last years in Tawi-Tawi. As Sultan, Azim ud-Din ratified the Treaty of 1737 with Spain, which acknowledged Sulu as an independent sovereign power and established peaceful relations between the two entities. However, the treaty also obligated Sulu to support Spain in conflicts, as long as they did not involve European powers. This treaty laid the groundwork for Azim ud-Din’s subsequent reliance on Spanish support to maintain his rule and suppress internal rebellions, particularly from his relative Nasar ud-Din, who challenged his authority with the backing of influential leaders including datus and Iranuns.

Throughout his reign, Sultan Azim ud-Din faced significant internal and external challenges. In 1746, he sought to pacify the rebellious Tirun territories, notorious for their slave-hunting raids, by invoking the Treaty of 1737 to secure Spanish military aid. The Spanish responded by sending a fleet to assist him, successfully subduing the region. However, this alliance with the Spaniards alienated many of his subjects, who began to view the Sultan as overly dependent on foreign powers and sympathetic to Christian missionaries, the traditional enemies of the Sulu people. Despite these tensions, Azim ud-Din made efforts to strengthen the Islamic faith within his realm by codifying Sulu laws, introducing a coinage system, and promoting Arabic as the official language.

The complications in Sultan Azim ud-Din’s reign deepened when the Spanish King, influenced by Jesuit missionaries, sought to introduce Catholicism into Sulu and Mindanao. The Spanish King sent a letter requesting permission to preach Christianity and even built a chapel in Sulu, which Azim ud-Din received with apparent sympathy. However, this further eroded his support among the Sulus, including the panditas and ulama, leading to increasing opposition. In 1748, after an assassination attempt orchestrated by his brother, Batu Bantilan, Azim ud-Din was forced to flee to Basilan. His brother then declared himself Sultan under the title Mu’izz ud-Din. Azim ud-Din later sought refuge in Manila, where he requested to convert to Catholicism, a decision that cast further doubt on his loyalty among his people.

Azim ud-Din’s later years were marked by imprisonment, investigation, and eventual return to Jolo. Before leaving Manila, Governor Ovando asked Sultan Azim ud-Din to write a letter to Maguindanao Sultan, Amir ud-Din Hamza, explaining that Spanish support had restored him to the throne and urging Hamza to avoid aiding Spain’s enemies and to accept Christian missionaries. Azim ud-Din complied but sent a personal letter in his dialect expressing that his earlier statements were made under duress. These letters were intercepted and used as evidence of his treason. Following the arrival in Zamboanga of many Tausug and Yakan to pay him their respects, which was seen as a threat, the Governor held an emergency war council and arrested 217 Tausug and Yakan, including Azim ud-Din and several prominent figures.

Because of this, he was held prisoner in Fort Santiago, and undergoing a thorough investigation to determine the sincerity of his conversion to Catholicism, the Sultan was declared a Christian by the theologians of Santo Tomas. Archbishop Rojo planned to send him and his son back to Sulu where his brother, the reigning sultan promised to return the throne. But this was spoiled by the British invasion of Manila who has also plans for Sulu. ‘Azim ud-Din offered help during the British invasion, but he was wounded. He permission to return to Sulu was denied. He contacted the British and told him his situation. The British found him in Pasig, escorted him to Manila where he was treated and given monthly allowance. He then entered into negotiations with the British government and gave them political concessions. The Spaniards tried to talk to him but failed. On May 17, 1764, the British escorted him to Sulu where he was well received. His nephew who succeeded his brother returned the throne to him as if nothing happened in Manila. He resumed his Islamic practices and was honored with the title Amir ul-Mu’minin, a prestigious title once reserved for the caliphs of Islam. In return for the favors which he the British gave him, ceded to them that part of North Borneo lying between Cape Inarstang and the River Frimanis with the adjacent Island of Balambangan and the Island of Tulayan. Balambangan was soon after that occupied and garrisoned by English forces. In 1773, he retired and gave the throne to his son. Two years after, he died in 1775.

Sources: 

Majul, Cesar A. 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press.

Majul, Cesar A. 1978. Sulu Power in Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation, Vol.5 p.1332-1336. Lahing Pilipino Publishing, Inc.

Photo Sources:

Filipino Heritage: The Making of the Nation. Vol. 5, p.1334

Sulu coins minted during the reign of Sultan ‘Azim ud-Din. https://kahimyang.com/kauswagan/general-blogs/728/11-pieces-of-history-coins-used-by-filipinos-before-and-during-the-spanish-era

While Sultan ‘Azim ud-Din was held in prison, Spanish government attacked Sulu. His brother, Mu‘izz ud-Din, the reigning sultan, fought back and even tried to get the support of China. When peace was negotiated, the M’ranaos, Maguindanaons, and Iranuns attacked Christian settlements.

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When Sultan ‘Azim ud-Din along with his family and men were imprisoned in Zamboanga due to his alleged treachery, the Spanish government, with the recommendation of Juan Angles, Jesuit missionary to Jolo, decided to destroy Sulu.

At the end of May 1752, a Spanish squadron with about 1,900 men led by commander Antonio Ramon de Abad attacked Jolo. The Tausug counterattack inflicted great losses on the invaders despite the three-day continuous bombardment of Jolo. The Spaniards and their native Christian allies who were interested in the booty had to retire to Zamboanga. The Datus retaliated by raiding and burning towns controlled by the Spaniards. Samar and Panay were their hardest hit. To get more support, Mu‘izz ud-Din, the reigning Sultan of Sulu, sent a letter with a package of soil to the Chinese Emperor expressing his desire for the people of Sulu to be under China.He also sent a letter to the Ottoman Sultan to seek military support.

Sultan ‘Azim ud-Din who was already brought to Manila, proposed that his sister and daughter be brought to Sulu to negotiate peace and the release of Christian captives by his younger brother, Sultan Mu‘izz ud-Din. Only his daughter Fatima was permitted to go to Jolo. On May 12, 1753, she arrived and was well received by his uncle. Fifty slaves were released and sent to Zamboanga.

On December 20, 1753, Fatima with Mu‘izz ud-Din’s ambassador, Muhammad Isma‘il arrived in Manila to negotiate peace. Sultan Mu’izz ud-Din in his letter to the Governor General requested the release of his brother, relatives and followers, and promised that he would punish the Tiruns who were constantly conducting slave raiding. But while peace was being negotiated, the M’ranaos kept on increasing their maritime strength and accelerated their attacks on Leyte, Calamianes, and Albay. They were greatly responsible for the abandonment of many settlements in the Visayas and the dislocation of economic life of thousands of people. They did this since most of the troops used by Spaniards against them were Visayans. The Maguindanaoans and their Iranun allies also captured the Spanish manned Tandag fort in Eastern Mindanao. These attacks led the Spaniards to devise a more elaborate and effective naval system of defense.

Sources:

Majul, Cesar. Muslims in the Philippines. University of the Philippines Asian Center, 1973.

Celestraders of Sulu 

During the rule of Sultan Shahabuddin (1791–1808), Sulu territorial expansion reached its climax through conquest and intermarriages. It included Kalimantan with Balikpapan as the seat of power, Sabah with Sandakan and Marudu as seats of power, Palawan as overseer of the Visayas and Luzon, Basilan as overseer of Mindanao, and Sulu as the overall central government. These five areas are symbolized by the five stars of the flag of Sulu (1791–1808)

On July 29, 1850, General Juan Antonio de Urbiztondo attacked Sulu that ended with a Friendship Treaty of two different versions. For the Spaniards, Sulu Sultan acknowledged Spanish Sovereignty. But for the Tausug, the treaty was just an acknowledgement of friendship between the two countries.

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General Juan Antonio de Urbiztondo launched a military expedition from Manila to Sulu on December 11, 1850, aiming to punish the Sama Bangingi of Tungkil and their allies, while also seeking to bring the region under Spanish control. Urbiztondo was particularly concerned about the treaty signed by Sir James Brooke and the Sultan of Sulu in 1849, which hindered Spain’s ambitions. The treaty’s seventh article stipulated that the Sultan of Sulu would not cede any territory, recognize the sovereignty of any other nation, or pledge allegiance without the consent of Great Britain.

This prompted Urbiztondo to lead a force that included artillery, infantry, and irregular troops, initially targeting Tonkil to punish the Samals for their raids on Samar and Camiguin. However, due to bad weather, the expedition redirected to Jolo, where they encountered significant fortifications and a well-defended population. Realizing his forces were insufficient, Urbiztondo chose not to engage in combat and withdrew.

Upon leaving Jolo on January 1, 1851, the fleet was attacked by Sulu forces, resulting in casualties and damage to the Spanish vessels. The expedition then returned to Tungkil, where they faced little resistance, burned houses, destroyed boats, and rescued captives before heading back to Zamboanga. There, Urbiztondo reinforced his troops and prepared for a second campaign. In February 1851, he returned to Jolo, where a two-day battle ensued, leading to significant casualties on both sides and the eventual destruction of the town. Despite their victory, the Spanish forces decided to evacuate Jolo, leaving it ungarrisoned.

The events in Jolo led to the negotiation of a treaty between Spain and Sultan Pulalun on April 30, 1851, written in both Spanish and Sulu. it is said that the Sulu translations were made by interpreters not well-versed in the Sulu language. Spanish version emphasized Sulu’s acknowledgment of Spanish sovereignty, while the Sulu or Tausug version merely acknowledged friendly union with Spain. Nevertheless, Sultan and key leaders agreed to accept compensation for the destruction of their property.

National Hero Dr, Jose Rizal, wrote a poem El combate: Urbiztondo, terror de Jolo (The Combat: Urbiztondo, the Terror from Jolo), a commemoration of the campaign led by Spanish Governor-General Antonio Urbiztondo in 1851 against the Sultanate of Sulu

Sources: 

Saleeby, Najeeb M. History of Sulu. Manila: Bureau of Public Printing, 1908. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41771/41771-h/41771-h.htm

Ocampo, Ambeth. (2011). Jose Rizal in Filipino Literature and History. Entre España y Filipinas : Jos Rizal escritor Biblioteca Nacional de Espaa 30 de noviembre de 2011- 12 de febrero de 2012. Madrid: Agencia Española de Cooperación.          https://archium.ateneo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=history-faculty-pubs

Photo Source: https://www.facebook.com/PhilippineSTAR/photos/everyday-history-on-this-day-in-1850-spanish-military-officer-juan-antonio-de-ur/1415755031911507/

In a bid to break all forms of resistance and to settle once and for all the issue of sovereignty over the Muslims, Spain launched her final campaign against Sulu in 1876. A total of 9,000 troops led by Governor General Jose Malcampo occupied Sulu, but the Tausug continued their resistance in the form of parangsabil (individual jihad).

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On February 05, 1876, Governor General Jose Malcampo left Manila with a large force composed of one battalion of the peninsular regiment of artillery, one company of mountain artillery, five regiments of infantry, ordnance, engineers, sanitary and prison detachments, and two companies of the guardia civil to launch his final campaign against Sulu. The expedition was reinforced in Zamboanga by 864 volunteers, 400 of whom were from Zamboanga and 464 from Kagayan de Misamis commanded by the Augustinian friar, Ramon Zueco.

A total of 9,000 troops arrived in Jolo on February 21, 1876. Tausug resistance in various parts of Sulu such as Patikul, Jolo, Parang, Siasi, and Tapul fell each day to the bombardments of Spanish artillery. On the fourth day of campaign, Maimbung, the seat of Sulu sultanate, was overrun. Sultan Jamalul A’lam moved to Bud Datu and later Likup, while the datus dispersed in all directors except for Datu Asibi and Datu Pula who remained in Patikul.

The Spaniards started to build large garrison on Jolo and other favorable spots on the edge of the swamps, the forts Alfonso XII and the Princess of Asturias were erected on the site of Daniel’s and Panglima Adak’s kuta, respectively. The Tausug regarded the establishment of these garrisons as an intrusion upon their soil and an intolerable humiliation and offense. Without waiting for a command to organize resistance, they resorted to parangsabil. They attacked and ambushed Spaniards at forests and rivers whenever they had a chance. Some even rushed to the garrison to kill as many as they could before getting killed by the Spaniards.

For more than two years, peace negotiations by the Spaniards and attempts to regain Jolo by the Tausug failed. In January 1878, Sultan Jamalul A’lam leased North Borneo for 5,000 Mexican currency to British North Borneo Company represented by Baron de Overbeck. Finally in July 1878, a peace treaty with Spain was signed that made Sulu a Spanish protectorate.

Sources:

Jubair, Salah. 1999. Bangsamoro: A Nation Under Endless Tyranny. Kuala Lumpur: IQ Martin.

Majul, César Adib. 1999. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Saleeby, Najeeb M. History of Sulu. Manila: Bureau of Public Printing, 1908. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41771/41771-h/41771-h.htm